Three main periods in the history of the English language

Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unexpended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal part is called an unexpended sentence. E.g.: She is a student. Birds fly. Winter!

An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers). The students spoke English to their teacher.

 

13. The compound sentence and types of coordination

In compound sentences, the clauses have equal rights, they are coordinated. We can distinguish the following types of coordination:

1. Copulative coordination (єднальний зв’язок), expressed by the conjunctions “and, nor, neither … nor, not only … but, (also)”. The statement expressed in one clause is simply added to that expressed in the other. E.g.: It was a nice little place and Mr. and Mrs. Wills were rather proud of it.

2. Disjunctive coordination (розділовий зв’язок), expressed by the conjunctions “or, else, or else, either … or”, and the conjunctive adverb “otherwise”. By these a choice is offered between the statements expressed in two clauses, e.g.: He knew it to be no sense or it would frighten him.

3. Adversative coordination (протиставний зв’язок), expressed by the conjunctions “but, while, whereas” and the conjunctive adverbs “nevertheless, still, yet”. They connect clauses contrasting in meaning. E.g.: The room was dark, but the street was lighter because of its lamps.

4. Causative–consecutive coordination (причинно-наслідковий зв’язок), expressed by the conjunctions “for, so” and the conjunctive adverbs “therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence”. E.g.: The two of them belonged to the same trade, so the talk was easy and happy between them.

14. The complex sentence and types of subordinate clauses

In complex sentences, clauses are not equal. One of them is the main (principle) clause, and the other is a subordinate clause.

The traditional classification of subordinate clauses is based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of the sentence. They are:

1. Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the main clause. E.g.: What I want to do is to save us both.

2. Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicate. In the main clause we find only part of the predicate. E.g.: But the chief reason is that he will never come here again.

3. Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the main clause. E.g.: I don’t know what you are talking about.

4. Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun (pronoun) in the main clause. E.g.: My brother, who is fifteen, cannot drive.

5. Adverbial clauses perform the function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the main clause. We distinguish different types of adverbial clauses/ They are the following:

1). Adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: You can stay here as long as you want.

2). Adverbial clause of place shows the place of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I looked where she pointed.

3). Adverbial clause of cause (reason) shows the cause of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: She didn’t go to see the film yesterday because she had seen it before.

4). Adverbial clause of purpose states the purpose of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: He was speaking very slowly so that everybody could understand.

5). Adverbial clause of condition states the condition which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I will do anything if it is in my power.

6). Adverbial clause of concession denotes the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: I enjoyed that day though it was cold.

7). Adverbial clause of result denotes the result of the action expressed in the main clause. E.g.: Darkness had fallen, so the streets were nearly deserted.

  He is so weak physically that he can hardly move.

8). Adverbial clause of manner characterizes in a general way the action expressed in the main clause. In adverbial clause of manner the idea of comparison is often implied. E.g.: She did exactly as he told her.

9). Adverbial clause of comparison denotes an action with which the action of the main clause is compared. E.g.: We were going up the road as fast as we could.

 

15. Фонетика як наука та її галузі. Фонетика і фонологія (Phonetics as a science and its branches. Phonetics and phonology)

Phonetics is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.

There are four branches of phonetics. They are as follows:

1) articulatory phonetics is the study of the way speech sounds are made (‘articulated’) by the vocal organs;

2) acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear;

3) auditory phonetics studies the perceptual response to speech sounds, as mediated by ear, auditory nerve and brain;

4) functional phonetics is concerned with the range and function of sounds in specific languages. It is typically referred to as phonology. What is the main distinction between phonetics and phonology?

Phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are made, transmitted, and received, i.e. phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds.

Phonology is the study of those segmental (speech sound types) and prosodic (intonation) features which have a differential value in the language. It investigates the phonetic phenomena from the point of view of their use.

People engaged in the study of phonetics are known as phoneticians (фонетисти).

People engaged in the study of phonology are known phonologists (фонологи).

 

16. Використання мови в усній вербальній комунікації (Language use in oral verbal communication)

Language teachers are expected to know:

1) how oral speech is produced for successful verbal communication;

2) what language resources are used;

3) how they function to create a particular linguistic meaning.

Verbal communication is the process of transmitting a verbal message from a speaker to a listener through a channel.

For sending messages the communicators use a code: “any systems of signals used for sending messages. The senders are said to encode the message and the receivers to decode it”.  Encoding is a process of putting the speaker’s thoughts, feelings, emotions, attitudes into a form recognizable by the listeners. The encoded message is then transmitted via a particular channel to a listener.

Typically in verbal communication the communicators use a verbal code - language and a system of nonverbal codes (body language, touch and spatial behaviour, appearance, etc.). Language as a code consists of the following resources: a lexicon/ vocabulary, grammar and a phonology. It exists in its two material forms: oral and written. Oral language form has its sound/phonic material substance, and written language form -graphic.

When language is used for verbal communication the communicators 1) apply language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing);

2) to put their knowledge of language resources (phonology, grammar and vocabulary) into action;

3) produce discourse.

Discourse is a continuous stretch of language - oral or written - which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.

 

17. Вимова як один із шляхів матеріалізації усної форми мови (Pronunciation as a way of materializing of oral form of language)

Phonic shaping of oral form of language is called pronunciation.

The concept pronunciation has several meanings in present-day phonetics. In its narrow meaning it is restricted lo the features manifested in the articulation the sounds of a language.

Its wide interpretation pronunciation realizes the entity of discourse features relating to:

1) the sound system of a language (the so-called segmental phonemes in the form of their actual speech manifestations - allophones or variants);

2)  the syllabic structure of a language (syllable formation and syllable division);

3)  word-stress/lexical stress;

4) intonation as a complex unity of pitch (тональний), force (силовий) and temporal (темпоральний) components.

In discussing the pronunciation of English we can focus on one or both of two aspects:

a) we may want to describe what speakers do when they are speaking English. This is the aspect of SPEECH (мовлення), an activity carried on by communicators who use English in communicating.

b) we may address the question, what are the characteristics of English words and sentences (discourse) that are realized in speech? This is die aspect of LANGUAGE (мова).

Speech is not the same as language. Speech is an activity which is carried on numerous events; language is knowledge, a code which is known and shared by speakers who use their knowledge for transmitting and interpreting verbal messages in these events.

Pronunciation is the primary medium through which we bring our use of language to the attention of other people. It is a process of materializing of features relating to the system of sounds/phonemes, the syllabic structure, prosody (word stress and intonation) while speech/oral verbal message is constructed.

 

18. Просодія як один із найважливіших явищ в англійській мові (Prosody as one of the most important phenomena in the English language).

Words in speech are not used in isolation but in phrases and sentences where they are organized according to grammar rules, get different degrees of prominence. Each syllable of a word is pronounced with a different degree of pitch and loudness of the voice, and tempo of utterance. Variations in pitch, stress, and tempo are considered to be supra-segmental or prosodic. They are traditionally termed intonation.

The most important intonation effects in a language are provided by:

1) the linguistic use of pitch, or speech melody. Different levels of pitch are used in particular sequences to express a wide range of meanings. For example, all languages seem to differentiate between a falling and a rising pitch pattern. This distinction is used to express a contrast between ‘stating’ and ’questioning’;

2) the linguistic use of sentence stress. It is the amount of perceptual prominence given to particular words or syllables in an sentence because of the particular meaning the speaker wishes to convey in a particular situation. That perceptual prominence is achieved by pitch change accompanied by greater loudness, duration and more clearly defined vowel qualities.

3) the linguistic use of speech tempo. It is possible to speed up or slow down the rate with which syllables, words, and sentences are produced to convey several kinds of meaning. In many languages, a sentence spoken with extra speed conveys urgency. Rapidly pronounced, clipped syllables may convey irritation; slowly drawled ones - greater personal involvement, etc.

Languages also vary in the way in which rhythmical contrasts are made. English rhythm preserves roughly equal intervals of time between stressed syllables irrespective of the number of unstressed syllables that come between them. This is defined as a ‘stress-timed/based’ (or isochronous) rhythm or a stress/based rhythm.

 

19. Порівняльна характеристика одиниць мови та мовлення (Units of language vs speech).

Language and speech can be the two main objects of analysis in our attempt to understand the nature and functioning of oral verbal communication. These global concepts structurally can be divided into smaller units.

In their use of language speakers express themselves mainly in sentences which can be organized into texts.

Sentences consist of phrases, and phrases consist of words. Every word consists of at least one morpheme.

A morpheme is expressed in some sequence of the phonemes of a language.

The features which are present in all the allophones are distinctive features.

Thus, the units of LANGUAGE from largest to smallest are:

Text - Sentence – Phrase – Word – Morpheme – Phoneme - Distinctive feature

 

The UNITS OF SPEECH:

1. The concept of discourse is used to refer to any act of speech which is in a place and during a given period of time. Discourse in this meaning is ‘spoken discourse’.

2. A discourse consists of at least one utterance.

3. An utterance consists of at least one tone unit.

4. Tone units are broken into smaller ‘chunks’ - rhythmic groups (= feet, phonetic words).

5. A rhythmic group consists of at least one syllable.

6. A syllable consists of at least one segment and usually of more than one.

7. In the articulation of a segment, the vocal organs have some particular. Each position or movement is an articulatory feature. Thus, the units of SPEECH from largest to smallest are:

Discource – Utterance - Tone unit – Syllable – Segment - Articulatory feature

20. Головні варіанти вимови англійської мови (Major accents of English)

British dialectologists P.Trudgill, J.Hannah, A.Hughes divide all variants of English into two major groups:

1) the English-based group comprising English-English, Welsh English, Scottish English, Northern Ireland English, Australian English, New Zealand English, and

2)  the American-based group with American English and Canadian English.

English English comprises two major accents: Southern English and Northern English.

Thus there are five major accents (literary/cultivated) on the British Isles:

1. Southern English or Received Pronunciation (RP)/BBC English.

2. Northern English.

3. Welsh English.

4. Scottish English.

5. Northern Ireland English.

RP/BBC English implicitly enjoys the status of the national standard of pronunciation in the United Kingdom.

In American English, three main types of literary/cultivated pronunciation are distinguished:

1. General American (GenAm, GA)/Network English which is also known as Western American. 2. Eastern American.

3. Southern American.

GenAm/Network English enjoys the status of the national standard of pronunciation in the USA.

New varieties of English or New Englishes have emerged as the result of the colonial experience: Indian English, Hong Kong English, Singaporean English, West African English, etc.

 

21. Класифікація голосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English vowels).

The system of the English vowels was investigated by well-known British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians: Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, V. A Vassilyev, Shcherba and others.

The articulatory classification of the English vowels can be described according to the following criteria:

1. Stability of articulation; 2. Tongue position; 3. Lip position; 4. Character of the vowel end; 5. Length; 6. Tenseness.

1. Stability of articulation		Monophthongs – 12				Diphthongs 8	Thriphthongs
2. Length of articulation		Long - i:, u:, a:, ͻ:, 3:		Short - I, e, æ, ͻ,  Λ,  υ, ə		Iə, eə, υə, eI, αI, ͻ I, əυ, αυ	eIə, αIə, ͻ Iə, əυə, αυə
3. Degree of muscular tension		Tense - i:, u:, a:, ͻ:, 3:		Lax - I, e, æ, ͻ,  Λ,  υ, ə
4. Lip participation		Rounded (labialized) - u:, υ,  a:, ͻ :		Unrounded (non-labialized) - I, e, æ,  Λ,  υ, ə, i:, a:, 3:
5. Vertical movement of the tongue		6. Horizontal movement of the tongue
		fully front	front retracted	central (mixed)	back advanced	fully back
High (close)	narrow variety	i:				u:
	broad variety		I		υ
Mid (mid-open)	narrow variety	e		3:
	broad variety			ə  Λ,
Low (open)	narrow variety					ͻ
	broad variety		æ			ͻ: a:

 

22. Класифікація приголосних в англійській мові за артикуляцією (The articulatory classification of the English consonants).

The system of the English consonants was investigated by well-known British, Russian and Ukrainian phoneticians: Henry Sweet, Daniel Jones, V. A Vassilyev, Shcherba and others.

The articulatory classification of the English consonants can be described according to the following criteria:

1) active organ(s) of speech and the place of obstruction;

2) type or kind of articulatory obstruction and manner of noise production.

Active organ, place of                 obstruction   Type of ob- struction, manner of the production of noise		Labial		Lingual						Pharyngeal
				Forelingual				Medio-lingual	Back lingual
		bilabial	labio-dental	interdental	alveolar	post-alveolar	palato-alveolar	palatal	velar	glottal
Occlusives	plosives	p, b			t, d				k, g
	nasal sonorants	m			n				ŋ
Constrictives	fricatives		f,v	ð, θ	s, z		∫, ʒ			h
	sonorants	w			l	r		j
Affricates							t∫, d ʒ

 

23. Асиміляція як універсальна характерна ознака розмовної мови. Типи асиміляції за ступенем (Assimilation as a universal feature of spoken language. Types of assimilation according to the degree).

Assimilation is modification of a consonant under the influence of the neighbouring consonant. During assimilation a given C (the assimilating C) takes on the characteristics of a neighbouring C (the conditioning C). Aassimilation is a universal feature of spoken language. In English it can be both within words and between words.

Several types of assimilation can be recognized.

1. According to the degree the assimilating C takes on the characteristics of he neighbouring C, assimilation may he 1) partial (incomplete) or 2) total (complete).

In the phrase ten bikes, the normal form in colloquial speech would be /tem baiks/, not /ten baiks/ which would sound somewhat ‘careful’. In this case, the assimilation has been partial: the /n/ has fallen under the influence of the following /b/ and has adopted its bilabiality, becoming /m/. It has not, however adopted its plosiveness. The phrase /teb baiks/ would be likely if one had a severe cold!

The assimilation is total in ten mice /tem mais/, where the /n/ is now identical with /m/.

 

24. Типи асиміляції за позицією у слові (Types of assimilation according to the position in a word)