Фонетика английского языка

The linguistic role of a phoneme is three-fold:

-   the constitutive (утворююча) - phonemes constitute (утворювати) morphemes, words, utterances;

-   the distinctive - phonemes differentiate one word from another;

-   the identifying - the choice of phonemes or their allophones gives information about the speaker: the locality he lives in, his social status, age, even his emotional state.

To represent the sounds and the sound patterns of a language in accurate, consistent terms, a special system of symbols and conventions (умовні позначення) for using these symbols is needed. An auditory (слуховий) style of transcription, in which the transcriber attempts to write exactly what he or she hears (whether or not it is fully understood) is called phonetic transcription. In phonetic transcription, the individual phonemes are written as alphabetic symbols, in addition to other kinds of symbols or diacritic markings (спеціальне позначення), between square brackets. Prosody is represented by marks and lines which are written above the segmental transcription. This type of trascription, which provides special symbols for all the phonemes of a language is also called broad or phonemic trascription. There is another type, the narrow or allophonic transcription, which suggests special symbols including some information about articulatory activity of particular allophonic features.

As developed by the International Phonetic Association, phonetic transcription is a kind of uniform and universal way of writing based strictly on sound. It is very useful for describing, analysing and contrasting languages. Since writing systems vary widely in the way of representing the sounds of a language, it is essential to have a common writing system one that can be abstracted from actual languages for the description of sounds. Besides teaching you how to represent sounds correctly, transcription also helps you train your ear so that you can pick up more detail from whatever stream of speech you are listening to.

 

LECTURE 3 THE SYSTEM OF THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS

1 Consonantism

2 Articulator classification of the English consonants (to be done individually)

3 English consonants as units of the phonological system.

4 The peculiarities of the English consonants

5 Modifications of consonants in connected speech

 

LITERATURE:

M A Sokolova PP. 50-65

S.F.leontieva. P.P.68-105

T.M.Brovchenko P.P.70-110

There are two major classes of sounds traditionally distinguished by phoneticians in any language They are termed consonants and vowels It would be fair to mention that the distinction is based mainly on auditory effect. Consonants are known to have voice and noise combined, while vowels are sounds consisting of voice only.

Thus, a very brief definition of consonants is that they are sounds made with closed or nearly closed articulations. That means that in producing consonants:

1) there is an obstruction, the removal of which causes noise

There are the following types of obstructions

- complete occlusion (повна перешкода) (closure) or plosion (вибух)

- constriction (зжаття) (narrowing) or friction (тертя)

- occlusion-constriction

2) the muscular [m/\skjulэ] tension is concentrated at the place of obstruction

3) the air stream is strong.

Besides consonants are not vocalic that is why they do not form syllables.

Consonants are classified according to the following principles:

I Work of vocal cords and the force of exhalation

ІІ Active organs of speech and the place of obstruction

III Manner of noise production and the place of obstruction

IV Position of the soft palate

According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation consonants are divided into voiced and voiceless Voiced consonants are [b, d, g, v, o, z, з, dз ], voiceless consonants are: [p,t, k, f, O, s, sh, ch, h ].

The exhalation aтd the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of voiceless consonants, therefore they are called "fotis". Voiced consonants are called “lenis” [li:nis], because the force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension in their articulation are weaker. The English sonorants [m, n, n, w, l, r, j] do not enter into fortis-lenis oppositions because they are made with tone prevailing over noice because of a rather wide air passage.

According to the position of the active organs of speech against the place of articulation consonants are classified into: labial, lingual, glottal.

Labial consonants are subdivided into bilabial and labio-dental. Bilabial consonants are produced with both lips. They are [p, b, m, w]. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper lip. They are [f, v].

Lingual consonants are subdivided into: forelingual, nfediolingual, backlingual.

Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. According to the position of the tongue they may be: dorsal, apical, cacuminal.

According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be interdental, dental, alveolar, post-alveolar, palato-aveolar.

Interdental consonants are articulated with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth [0, o].

Dental consonants are articulated, with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth like Ukrainian [д, с,] French [t].

Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth ridge [d, t, z, s, n, l].

Post alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the back part of the teeth ridge [r].

Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade, of the tongue against the teeth ridge, the front part of the tongue raised towards the palate [sh, ch, зб, з].

Medio-lingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants are articulated with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate [j].

Backlingual consonants are also called velar, they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate "velum" [k, g, n]

The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis.

According to the manner of noise production and the type of obstruction consonants are divided into occlusive (закритий) (stop or plosive) and nasal, when complete closure is formed in their articulation [p, b, d, t, k, d, m, n, n]. Constrictive (зжимаючийся) (incomplete closure) [f, v, 0, o, s, z, s, h, з, w, l, r, j] occlusive-constrictive or affricates (the combination of the two closures) [dз, ch] In Ukrainian we have a rolled or trilled consonant [p], in the place of its articulation an intermittent closure is formed.

According to the position of the soft palate all consonants are divided into oral and nasal. When the soft palate is raised and the air from the lungs gets into the pharynx and then into the mouth cavity, oral consonants are produced When the soft palate is lowered and the air on ils way passes through the nasal cavity, nasal consonants are produced [m, n, n]

The phonological analysis (namely the method of minimal pairs) of the English consonants helps to differentiate 24 phonemes. The above mentioned principles provide the basis for the establishment of the following distinctive oppositions in the system of the English consonantism:

1 work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation voiceless -forts vs voiced -tenis

   [p-b] pat -bat               [t-d] tip-dip                [k-g] cot-got

2 active organ of speech and the place of articulation labial vs lingual:

   pat-cat ban-tan; fun-nun. First are labial, second - lingual

lingual vs glottal (h) (pharyngal):

   Tim-dim-rim-him; care-wear-fair-hair

3 manner of the production of noise occlusive vs constrictive;

   bat-that, came-lame; dare-share, pine-fine

constrictive vs occlusive-constrictive (affricates)

   work-jerk, fare-chair, fail-jail

4 position of the soft palate oral vs. nasal

   pat-pal; seed-seem; sick-sing

Every language has certain peculiarities of pronunciation which give it a distinctive phonetic character. The differences in the articulation of consonants in English and Ukrainian are in the general tendencies their speakers move and hold their lips and the tongue

1 One of the characteristic features of English consonants is the apical articulation of 12 forelingual consonants [0, o, d, t, z, s, n, l, з, sh, ch, dз], thus 50% of all the consonants have an apical articulation they are articulated with the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge, or against the teeth The corresponding Ukrainian consonants are articulated with the tongue in dorsal position, while the tip of the tongue is lowered The Ukrainian forelingual apical consonants are only [л, л’].

2 The bulk of the tongue in the articulation of the English consonants has the tendency to occupy more flat and more retracted and more low positions than for Ukrainian consonants More flat and low position of the bulk of the tongue limits the system of the English 'light or soft" consonants and provides the basis for "dark" articulation, thus making the English consonants hard. Palatalized consonants do not exist in English, with the exception of the clear variant of the English [l’] which depends on the final position of the sound in a word (before a vowel) The English [sh, dз] are slightly palatalized hut there are no corresponding non-palatalized consonants.

In Ukrainian there are non-palatalized and palatalized consonants and palatalization is phonetically independent feature of articulation. To palatalize we pronounce a speech sound with the blade of the tongue touching the palate.

3 The English voiced consonants are less energetic whereas voiceless consonants are much more energetic. Final voiced consonants are weak in English (even partially devoiced) but never completely devoiced In English voiceless consonants in final position are strong and never devoiced.

50% of Ukrainian consonants have an additional energetic articulation, the high position of the tongue, which produces the effect of palatalization.

Voicing and devoicing is a phonemic feature in English which leads to a mistake of substitution one -word for another bed - bet; cab - cap.

4 The English nasal consonants [m, n, n, l] are more sonorous especially in final positions before a short vowel, and also between a short vowel and a voiced consonant They are particularly long in such sequences: bells, songs, sums. In Ukrainian they are less sonorous in all positions, and are never long

5 The English consonants are not divided into long and short Length of consonants as a phonetic feature doesn't exist in English, while in Ukrainian length is an independent feature in the system of consonants.

6 As to the English plosives, there's a less firm contact of the articulating and passive speech organs, on the other hand the voiceless [p, t, k] are aspirated. The lightness of the contact and the aspiration give a peculiar 'whispered effect to the most frequently used English consonants.

There are 4 degrees of aspiration:

1 they are heavily aspirated before a long vowel under stress,

2 less heavily before a short vowel:

3 hardly any aspiration in a final unstressed position

4 no aspiration after "s".

5   The sounds [0, o, n] are a peculiar phonetic feature of English.

6   Lip position is very essential in forming the English consonants. In pronouncing them they are not protruded as a rule (with the only exception for [w]). Lips are rather inactive. In general English articulation may be characterized as sluggish.(пасивний, в’ялий)

Consonant phonemes in English which have no counterparts in Ukrainian are the following:

1 the bilabial constrictive sonorant [w];

2 the interdental consonants [0, o];

3 the voiced affricate [dз];

4 the post-alveolar constrictive sonorant [r];

5 the backlingual nasal sonorant [n];                                   

6 the glottal [h].

Hitherto, we have looked at the English consonants individually. But language in everyday use is not conducted in terms of isolated, separate units it is performed in connected sequences of larger units. In weds, phrases and larger utterances There are actually some remarkable sentences between the pronunciation and of the same word in a block of connected speech These changes are mostly quite regular and predictable.

 

LECTURE 4 THE SYSTEM OF THE ENGLISH VOWELS

OUTLINE

1 Vocalism

2 The articulatory classification ol the English vowels

3 Peculiarities of the English vowels

4 The diphlong theory

5 The English vowels in connected speech  Reduction

6 The unstressed vocalism

7 Articulatory transitions in English

As was mentioned before, vowels unlike consonants are produced with no obstruction to the air stream, that is why on the perception level their integral characteristic is tone, not noise. Thus the distinction between vowels and consonants is based on acoustic considerations, namely on their sonority (дзвінкість). The general principles of vowel articulation are:

1 vowels are based on voice which is modified,

2 the muscular tension is spread equally over all speech organs. The tension is stronger for long vowels and shorter for weak ones.

3 the air stream passes freely through the mouth cavity.

4 vowels have no special place of articulation The whole of the speech apparatus takes part in producing them

5 vowels are syllabic, it means they are capable of forming a syllable.

Vowels are classified according to the following principles

-position of lips:

-position of the tongue

-degree of tension and the character of the end of a vowel

-length

-stability of articulation

Since the tongue is the perfect instrument to determine the posture adapted by the mouth cavity, vowels are described primarily in terms of the position of the tongue.

Two parameters are important

a) front vs back The highest part of the tongue may be towards the front of the mouth or towards its back;

b) high vs low (also called close vs open) The degree to which the tongue is raised.

Stability of articulation specifies the process of articulation of the vowel. There are two possible variants:

a) the tongue position is stable

b) the tongue moves from one position to another.

In the first variant the articulated vowel is relatively pure, in the second case a vowel consists of two clearly perceptible elements. According to this principle the vowels are divided into monophthongs and diphthongs.

A diphthong is a sequence of two vowels within a single syllable. One component of a diphthong is more prominent than the other. In the English diphthongs, it is usually the first element which is more prominent, but in other languages like French, this may be different. The two articulations of a diphthong are described as nucleus and a glide.

A diphthong is defined as a unisyllabic complex in the articulation of which the organs of speech start from one position then glide into another position A diphthong may be falling -when the nucleus is stronger than the glide, and rising - when the glide is stronger than the nucleus When two elements are equal such diphthong is called level. English diphthongs are falling.

There are two categories of diphthongs in English which differ according to the direction of the vowel movement. The closing diphthongs, where the movement is towards a high or close vowel, either [i] or [u], and the centering diphthongs, where the movement is towards the neutral [з] The closing diphthongs are in turn divided into those which have movement towards [i] and those which have movement towards [u]: ei, ai, oi and au ou

The vowels [i:] and [u:] are diphthongized in modern English and the tendency of diphthongization is becoming gradually stronger.

The main principle we should consider from the phonological point of view is the position of the tongue. The tongue may move vertically (i.e. it may be raised to various heights in the mouth) or horizontally (forward and backward).

According to the vertical position of the tongue vowels are divided into the following groups:

1) when the tongue comes rather close to the palate and the air flows through the passage without causing audible friction (тертя), the resulting vowels are close. In pronouncing close vowels the air passage between the tongue and the palate is rather narrow

Eng [i:, u:, i, u ]   Ukr. [i, y]

2)  when the tongue is lowered and a wide air passage is formed between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, the resulting vowels are called open

Eng [ ), ):, эe, a:, a]    Ukr [a]

3)  when the tongue is in a position intermediate between those of open and close vowels the resulting voels are called half-open

Eng  [e, з:, з, є, /\, ] Ukr [e, o]

Thus, close vowels are produced with a nearly closer, mouth. half-open - with a jaw half open and open - with a wide jaw angle and в vertical mouth opening.

According to the horizontal movement of the tongue there are well-defined classes of vowels

1) when the front of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, the air passing through the mouth produces front vowels:

Eng [i:, e, эe,]  Ukr [i]

2) when the front but somewhat retracted part of the tongue is raised towards the hard palate, the air passing through the mouth produces front retracted vowels

Eng [i( )]     Ukr [и, е]

3) when, еhe front part of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate, the resulting vowels are called central

Eng.[/\, э:, э]  Ukr. [a, и]

4)  when the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft palate a back vowel is pronounced. In pronouncing back vowels a large resonance chamber is formed in the front part of the mouth cavity Eng [a:, ), ):, u:]   Ukr. [o, y]

6) when the back but somewhat advanced part of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, the resulting vowels are called back advanced: Eng [u].

In pronouncing vowels traditionally three lip positions are distinguished the lips may be spread, neutral or rounded to a certain extent. According to the position of the lips vowels are divided into rouned [), ):, u, u: ] Ukr [o, y] and unrounded [i:, i, e, a: /\, э, э:, ].

Another articulatory characteristic of English vowels is their length or quantity. Traditionally the English monophthongs are divided into two varieties according to their length_;

short vowels [i:, a:, u:, ):, э:]

long vowels [ /\, e, ), u, i, э]

Special instrumental analysis shows that long vowels are tense while short vowels are lax.

There ace 20 vowels In English The most characteristic features of them are as follows

1. The English vowels, although not very tense objectively seem tense. This is especially felt in unstressed positions

2. In English an unstressed vowel does not always differ in quality from a stressed one. In Ukrainian an unstressed vowel is always short and different in quality from the same vowel under stress

3  Vowels in English differ in length according to 2 principles:

a) In monophthongs length is phonemic and is always connected with a certain vowel quality

b) in diphthongs length is not significant, it is entirely phonetic variations of length depend upon the sound sequence in which a diphthong occurs.

4. English vowels are mostly non-labialised. On the other hand, the lips are tenser in the articulating the English front monophthongs, which require spreading of the lips. Spreading of the lips is a typical feature of the English articulation.

5 Typically English are the vowels

         6  Other striking features of English are the open back vowels [), ]There are no vowels in Ukrainian so back, open and tense