Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

 

 
 
Repetition:  

1. Ordinary:

2. Anaphora: a…; a…; a…;

3. Epiphora: …a; …a; …a;

4. Anadiplosis: a…b; b…c;

5. Chain repetition: a…b; b…c; c…d …

6. Successive repetition: a…b, b, b …

7. Framing.

 
 
 
The Types of Repetition on the Syntactical Level 

• repetition of an abstract syntactical position (this is observed in any sentence comprising two or morehomogeneous parts, which relate syntactically but not semantically)

• synonymic repetition (repetition of an abstract syntactical position involving the usage of synonyms, i.e. the homogeneous parts relate syntactically and semantically)

• repetition of the same element (word or phrase) within the sentence (is typical for colloquial speech and concerns mostly qualifying adverbs and adjectives, such as for ever and ever; very, very, very good, etc.)

• parallelism (involves a repetition of identical syntactical constructions and contributes to rhythmic and melodic unification of adjacent sentences; it serves either to emphasise the repeated element, or to create a contrast, or underlines the semantic connection between sentences).

 
^ Parallel constructions are based on the repetition of the whole syntactical structure of several successive sentences. 
 
He had been called.  
 
He had been touched. 
 
He had been summoned. (R.W.) 
 
 
The Types of Repetition on the Lexico-Syntactical Level 

• anaphora a…, a…, a…

 
(Implies identity of initial parts of two or more autonomous syntactical segments (verse lines, stanzas, paragraphs, etc.), adjacent or at a distance in the text, yet obviously connected semantically),e.g.: 
 
^ I love your hills, 
 
I love your walls, 
 
I love your flocks and bleating. (Keats) 

•  
  epiphora …a, …a, …a.

 
(As opposed to anaphora implies recurrence of one or several elements concluding two or more syntactical units), e.g.: 
 
I wake up and I am alone 
 
and I walk round Warley and I am alone; 
 
and I talk to people and I am alone 
 
and I look at his face when I’m home and it’s dead. (J.Br.) 

• framing abca.

 
(The term is used to denote the recurrence of the initial segment at the very end of a syntactic unit, by which a kind of frame is formed with the help of recurring words) 

• anadiplosis (catch repetition) …a, a… 

 
(Greek “doubling”; the final element of a syntactical unit recurs at the very beginning of the succeeding unit, the concluding part of the preceding unit serves the starting point of the next)  

• chain repetition …a, a…b, b…c, c…

 
(Presents several successive anadiploses, the effect is that of the smoothly developing reasoning, e.g.: 
 
^ Living is the art of loving. 
 
Loving is the art of caring. 
 
Caring is the art of sharing. 
 
Sharing is the art of living. (W.H.D.) 

• ordinary repetition …a, …a…, a…(has no definite place in the sentence and the repeated unit occurs in various positions; ordinary repetition emphasizes both the logical and the emotional meanings of the reiterated unit).

• successive repetition … a, a, a … is a string of closely following each other reiterated units; this is the most emphatic type of repetition, it signifies the peak of the speaker’s / writer’s emotions.

 
 
^ Lexico-syntactical stylistic devices (LSSD) (V.A.Kucharenko) 
 
Lexico-syntactical stylistic devices (LSSD) are based on the binary opposition of lexical features of analogy and contrast and united by the syntactical feature of recurrence: 
 
1) ANALOGY::RECURRENCE (Simile, Climax, Periphrasis) 
 
2) CONTRAST::RECURRENCE (Anticlimax, Antithesis, Litotes) 
 
 
^ Simile is a figure of speech based on similarity of objects belonging to different semantic groups: “A style without metaphor and simile is to me like a day without the sun, or woodland without birds” (Lucas) 
 
“Sometimes she seemed invisible like peace” (Gr.Green) 
 
Simile consists of 3 components: 

1. tenor ( the object, which is compared);

2. vehicle (the object or the notion, with which tenor is being compared;

3. tertium comparationis ( the basis of comparison, the group of words, having the qualities of both components: tenor and vehicle). “They make an impression easily like a ship in water”.

 
Tertium comparationis denotes a feature, quality, action, impression or attitude. The formal markers are: like; as…as; as though; as if; such as; seem.  
 
Stylistic functions of simile:  
 
1) Evokes fresh images;  
 
2) Reveals the author’s attitude, when it is original (fresh).  
 
Traditional simile: as thin as a rake; as fresh as a daisy; as drunk as a lord. 
 
Periphrasis is the use of a longer phrase with descriptive epithets instead of a short and simple form of expressing the same thought.  
 
Periphrasis is: 

1. Logical: The author of one’s being – father.

2. Figurative: “His studio is full of the mute evidences of his failure” – pictures.

3. Euphemistic: “He has the sun very strong in his eyes” (being drunk). 

 
“I am thinking an unmentionable thing about your mother”“(vulgar).  
 
It both names and describes the object, expressing the author’s attitude ironically, humorously and metaphorically. 
 
^ Climax (gradation) - an ascending series of words or utterances in which intensity or significance increases step by step. e.g. Every racing car, every racer, every mechanic, every ice - cream van was also plastered with advertising. 
 
Climax or gradation (Greek climax –“ladder”; Latin gradatio – “ascent, climbing up”) is a type of semantically complicated parallelism, in which every successive unit is logically more important or emotionally stronger or more explicit than the preceding one. Climax is based on the usage of homogeneous members which are arranged in ascending or descending scale, reaching climax or the highest (the lowest) point of intensity or expressiveness: “Walls – palaces – half – cities, have been reared”. “He was numbed. He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die, to sink away”. (A.B.) 
 
Climax is marked by parallelism, enumeration and repetition. 
 
“The liar! The brute! The monster! (Emotive climax, ascending scale) 
 
“^ Not a word, Sam – not a syllable!” (D.) (Descending scale)  
 
The first type of climax (the literary one) will be the following fragment: “and he PULLED! And the tail broke” whereas the second (the stylistic one) is much lengthier –“so he took off his plaid, and bent down and took hold of the sheep’s tail, and he pulled! The sheep was heavy with water, and he could not lift her, so he took off his coat and he pulled! But it was too much for him, so he spit on his hands, and took a good hold of the tail and he PULLED! And the tail broke! And if it had not been for that this tale would have been a great deal longer”. 
 
Leading to the climax (understood as a literary term), the latter shows how gradually the character’s involvement and excitement, as well as the tension of the narration, grow. It is worth while to note that this happens not infrequently in literary works on the whole and in short stories in particular. The climax (as gradation) is often a formal marker preceding the climax (as culmination).  
 
According to I.R.Galperin and V.A.Kukharenko a gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways:logical, emotional and quantitative. Study the table below: 
 
Table 11

Types of Climax	Logical	Every succeeding concept is logically more important than the previous one.
	Emotional/ Emotive	A row of synonyms with emotive meaning (often contextual ones) gradually increase the emotional tension of the utterance.
	Quantitative	An increase in the volume, size or number of each succeeding unit is implied.

 

 
 
^ Climax (gradation): Homogeneous members are arranged in ascending or descending scale, reaching climax or the highest (the lowest) point of intensity or expressiveness: “Walls – palaces – half – cities, have been reared”. “He was numbed. He wanted to weep, to vomit, to die, to sink away”. (A.B.) 
 
CONTRAST::RECURRENCE: 

1. Antithesis, 
2. Anticlimax
3. Litote

1. Antithesis is a semantic opposition emphasized in similar structures, often involving 2 antonyms: Don’t use big words. They mean so little. (O.W.) Antithesis is a SD based on the author's desire to stress certain qualities of the thing by appointing it to another thing possessing antagonistic features. e.g. They speak like saints and act like devils. 
    
   Antithesis: an opposition or contrast of ideas arranged structurally as parallel constructions: “Youth is full of pleasance, age is full of care…” 
    
   2. Anticlimax (bathos) represents climax suddenly interrupted by an unexpected turn of the thought that defeats expectations of the reader / listener and ends in complete semantic reversal of the emphasized idea. (V.A.Kukharenko); it involves adding one weaker element to one or several strong ones, mentioned before (Y.M.Skrebnev). 
    
   Anticlimax (bathos) is the reverse of climax or defeated expectancy: 
    
   He was unconsolable – for an afternoon. (G.) 
    
   This was appalling – and soon forgotten. (G.) 
    
   Anticlimax causes a humorous or ironic effect due to the sudden break in the accumulation of logical or emotional importance of the utterance. “Early rise and early to bed makes a male healthy and wealthy and dead” (T.Thurber) 
    
   Very close to bathos stands paradox, a stylistic device presenting a self-contradicting idea, which nonetheless seems true (in the words of Skrebnev, it is a “seemingly absurd though in fact well-founded statement”). The slogans from 1984 by George Orwell illustrate this. 
    
    
   

2. I n the framework of the Inner Party’s perverted logic there still is a certain sense in this nonsense: the less you know – the stronger you are, as you will be unable to commit thought crime; being a slave, you do not have to be responsible for decisions made, which is a true way to freedom; to avert the danger of an inner war the country must be exhausted by a continuous and fruitless war with equally omnipotent neighbours. 
    
   As many other stylistic devices, anticlimax also has a corresponding literary term, which names a similar phenomenon but on a larger scale. The one in question now is the effect of defeated expectancy, often met with in humorous, ironical and sarcastic stories. 
    
   3. Litotes - is a device - an affirmation is expressed by denying its contrary. Usually litotes presupposes double negation. One through a negative particle (no, not) the other - through a word with negative meaning. Its function is to convey doubts of the speaker concerning the exact characteristics of the object or a feeling. 
    
   e.g. It's not a bad thing - It's a good thing. 
    
   e.g. He is no coward. He is a brave man. 
    
   e.g. He was not without taste. 
    
    
   

 

 

 

 

Seminar 5 
 
Lexical Level of Stylistic Analysis 
 
Questions and tasks 
 
Questions: 

1. Discuss the semantic structure of a word. What lexical meanings of a word can you name? Which of them are stylistically relevant?

2. What SD’s are based on the use of the logical (denotational) meaning of a word?

3. What is a contextual meaning? How is it used in a SD?

4. What is the difference between the original and hackneyed SDs? Give examples of both.

5. What is a metaphor? What are its semantic, morphological, syntactical, structural and functional peculiarities?

6. What is a metonymy? Give a detailed description of a device.

7. What is included into the semantic group of SDs known as “play on words”?

8. Find examples of the discussed SDs in your home reading. Try to find peculiarities of usage of various SDs by different authors known to you from the courses of literature, home reading and analytical reading.

9. What is irony? What lexical meanings are employed in its formation?

10. What types of irony do you know? What is the length of the context needed for the realization of each of them?

11. What is most frequently observed mechanism of irony formation? Can you explain the role of the repetition in creating irony?

12. Name English, American, or Russian authors known for their ingenuity and versatility in the use of irony. Find cases of irony in books you read both for work and for pleasure.

13. What is antonomasia? What meanings interact in its formation?

14. What types of antonomasia do you know? Give examples of some speaking names from the books you read. Give examples of personages’ names used as qualifying common nouns.

15. What lexical meaning is instrumental in the formation of epithets?

16. What semantic and structural types of epithets do you know?

17. What parts of speech are predominantly used as epithets and why?

18. Give examples of the types and distribution of epithets; give your considerations as to what defines the quality and the quantity of epithets in a literary work.

19. What meaning is foregrounded in a hyperbole? What types of hyperbole can you name? 

20. What is an oxymoron and what meanings are foregrounded in its formation? 
21. Give examples of trite oxymorons. Where are they predominantly used? 
22. Why are there comparatively few trite oxymorons and where are they mainly used? Find some examples of trite oxymorons. 
23. What makes a hyperbole trite and where are trite hyperboles predominantly used? 
24. What is understatement? In what way does it differ from hyperbole? Give examples of original hyperboles and understatements from your English reading. 
 
 
Task 1 
 
State the type of transfer of meaning used to create the following tropes. Discuss the type of each metaphor: conceptual, trite, genuine, or sustained (prolonged). 

1. Life’s but a walking shadow; a poor player,

That struts and frets his hour upon the stage. (Shakespeare) 

2. Most men and women are forced to perform parts for which they have no qualifications. The world is a stage, but the play is badly cast. (O.Wilde)

3. Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper. (F.Bacon)

 
 
^ Task 2 
 
Analyze the poems and state the usage and stylistic functions of LSD.  
 
Road in Life 
 
Life is one long road, 
Some days a motorway so straight and smooth, 
With a fast lane for those who panic and are eager, 
A slow lane for those with no destination, boredom overtakes, 
While enjoying the past. 
Other days, life’s like a crescent, with bends and turns, 
Families laughing with rapture, all cozy and warm, 
Sitting huddled together listening to cries of the new born. 
But crisis occurs as quick as a flash, and the laughter fades, 
The bend is upon us, but we search for a new road 
Which sets life straight once again. 
Quite often life is just a hill, a tough struggle to the top, 
But once up, Success! Determination pays! The hard part is over, 
Now it’s down hill all the way! (S.Shah) 
 

 

 

 
Task 3 
 
Analyze the following cases of irony, antonomasia, epithets, litotes, hyperbole and understatement and oxymoron. Define the types, structure and stylistic functions of these lexical SDs. 
 
1. “It was an occasion for rejoicing, perhaps, but rather for a solemn, thankful, eyes-raised-to-heaven kind of rejoicing” (Wodehouse) 
 
2.“For the Doctor Watson of this world, as opposed to the Sherlock Holmeses, success in the province of detective work must be, to a very large extent, the result of luck” (Wodenhouse) 
 
3. “One after another those people lay down on the ground to laugh – and two of them died.” (M.Twain) 
 
4. “What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this favored country! – They let the paupers go to sleep” (Dickens) 
 
5. “Lovers speak of living deaths, dear wounds, fair storms, and freezing fires.” (Sir Ph.Sidney)  
 
 
Task 4 
 
Name different EM and SD and comment on their stylistic functions in the sentences.  
 
1. The girls were giggling and whispering in the hall. The pink muslin and the white silk rushed downstairs.  
 
2. She had a kind heart, a gold tooth and a bank account.  
 
3. The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them light.  
 
4. What sweet pain is to listen to her!  
 
5. treacherous as a snake.  
 
6. …uncertain rustling of the silky curtain.  
 
7. They suffered a crushing defeat. 
 
8. The fair sex.  
 
9. In private I should call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words; ‘Reckless disregard for truth’.  
 
10. Jingle, bells, jingle, bells, jingle all the way…  
 
11. The principal production of these towns appears to be soldiers, sailors, chalk, shrimps, officers, and dock-yard men.  
 
12. Youth is lovely, age is lonely; Youth is fire, age is frost.  
 
13. Soames turned away; he had an utter disinclination for talk…  
 
14. You just come home or I’ll…  
 
15. Over and over he was asking himself; would she receive him?  
 
16. The heaviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.  
 
17. She was lovely: all of her – delightful!  
 
18. I woke early to see the kiss of the sunrise summoning a flush to the cliffs.  
 
19. St. Paul’s cathedral dominated the urban space.  
 
20. Dirk, an artist, thought he was skilled in cooking Italian dishes, and I confess that his spaghetti were much better than his pictures.