Разделение изотопов и применение их в ядерном реакторе

Fertile – сырье

Smoke detectors – паровые детекторы

Neutron radiation – излучение нейтронов

Thermoelectric effect – термоэлектрический эффект

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) – тяжеловодный реактор

Reaktor Bolshoy Moschnosti Kanalniy (High Power Channel Reactor) (RBMK) – реактор большой мощности канальный

The Integral Fast Reactor (IFR) – Интегральный реактор на быстрых нейтронах

Pebble Bed Reactor - реактор галечного типа

High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGCR) – Высокотемпературный реактор газового охлаждения

Doppler broadening – допплеровское расширение

 Small Sealed Transportable Autonomous Reactor (SSTAR) - Маленький Переносной Скрепленный Автономный реактор 

Clean And Environmentally Safe Advanced Reactor (CAESAR) - Чистый и Экологический Модернизированный Реактор

Hydrogen Moderated Self-regulating Nuclear Power Module (HPM) - Саморегулирующийся Ядерный Энергетический Модуль

Subcritical reactors – Субкритические реакторы

Energy amplifier – Усилитель энергии

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) — Тяжеловодный Модернизированный Реактор 

Neutron flux – поток нейтронов

Fuel rods – ТВЭЛЫ

Burnup – выгорание топлива

Список использованной литературы

1. "Radioactives Missing From The Earth".

2. "NuDat 2 Description".

3. G.Choppin, J.O.Liljenzin and J.Rydberg “Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry” (2d edn, Butterworth-Heinemann 1995), p.3-5

4. Budzikiewicz H and Grigsby RD (2006). "Mass spectrometry and isotopes: a century of research and discussion". Mass spectrometry reviews 25 (1): 146–57. doi:10.1002/mas.20061. PMID 16134128.

5. Sonzogni, Alejandro. "Interactive Chart of Nuclides". National Nuclear Data Center: Brook haven National Laboratory.

6.http://bryza.if.uj.edu.pl/zdfk/wpincludes/publications/misiaszek_180mTa_2009.pdf Search for the radioactivity of 180mTa using an underground HPGe sandwich spectrometer, 2009

7. E. Jamin et al. (2003). "Improved Detection of Added Water in Orange Juice by Simultaneous Determination of the Oxygen-18/Oxygen-16 Isotope Ratios of Water and Ethanol Derived from Sugars". J. Agric. Food Chem. 51: 5202. doi:10.1021/jf030167 m.

8. A. H. Treiman, J. D. Gleason and D. D. Bogard (2000). "The SNC meteorites are from Mars". Planet. Space. Sci. 48: 1213. Bibcode 2000P&SS...48.1213T. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00105-7.

9. http://www.theregister.co.uk/2000/11/30/amd_tests_super_silicon/

10. Rhodes, Richard, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 1986, p. 494.

11. F. A. Lindemann and F. W. Aston, The possibility of separating isotopes, Philos. Mag., 1919, 37, p. 523.

12. J. W. Beams and F. B. Haynes, The Separation of Isotopes by Centrifuging, Phys. Rev., 1936, 50, pp. 491-492.

13. Stanley Whitley, Review of the gas centrifuge until 1962. Part I: Principles of separation physics, Rev. Mod. Phys., 1984, 56, pp. 41-66.

14.  F. J. Duarte and L.W. Hillman (Eds.), Dye Laser Principles (Academic, New York, 1990) Chapter 9.

15. F. J. Duarte (Ed.), Tunable Laser Applications, 2nd Ed. (CRC, 2008)

16. "Neutrons and gammas from Cf-252". Health Physics Society. Retrieved September 24, 2008.

17. "DOE Fundamentals Handbook: Nuclear Physics and Reactor Theory" (PDF). US Department of Energy. Archived from the original on April 23, 2008. Retrieved September 24, 2008.

18. Bioenergy Conversion Factors. Bioenergy.ornl.gov. Retrieved on 2011-03-18.

19. Jeremy Bernstein (2008). Nuclear Weapons: What You Need to Know. Cambridge University Press. p. 312. ISBN 9780521884082. Retrieved 2011-03-17.

20. "How nuclear power works". HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved September 25, 2008.

21. "Reactor Protection & Engineered Safety Feature Systems". The Nuclear Tourist. Retrieved September 25, 2008.

22. L. Szilárd, "Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements," British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).

23. The First Reactor, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Division of Technical Information

24. U.S. Patent 2,708,656 "Neutronic Reactor " issued 17 May 1955

25. Experimental Breeder Reactor 1 factsheet, Idaho National Laboratory

26.  Fifty years ago in December: Atomic reactor EBR-I produced first electricity American Nuclear Society Nuclear news, November 2001

27.  Kragh, Helge (1999). Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 286. ISBN 0691095523.

28. "On This Day: 17 October". BBC News. 1956-10-17. Retrieved 2006-11-09.

29. Science Leads the Way. Camp Century, Greenland, Frank J. Leskovitz (inc images)]

30. Golubev, V. I.; et al. (January 1993). "Fast-reactor actinide transmutation". Atomic Energy (New York: Springer) 74 (1): 83–84. doi:10.1007/BF00750983. ISSN 1063-4258.

31. U.S. Nuclear Power Plants. General Statistical Information, Nuclear Energy Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2009.

32. Lipper, Ilan, and Jon Stone. "Nuclear Energy and Society." University of Michigan. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2009.

33.  Generation IV. Euronuclear.org. Retrieved on 2011-03-18.

34.  Nucleonics Week, Vol. 44, No. 39; Pg. 7, September 25, 2003 Quote: "Etienne Pochon, CEA director of nuclear industry support, outlined EPR's improved performance and enhanced safety features compared to the advanced Generation II designs on which it was based."

35. A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems PDF (4.33 MB); see "Fuel Cycles and Sustainability"

36. World Nuclear Association Information Brief -Research Reactors

37.  "Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved January 29, 2010.

38.  Dr. Charles Till. "Nuclear Reaction: Why Do Americans Fear Nuclear Power?". Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). Retrieved 2006-11-09.

39.  "Generation IV Nuclear Reactors". World Nuclear Association. Retrieved January 29, 2010.

40.  IAEA, Improving Security at World's Nuclear Research Reactors: Technical and Other Issues Focus of June Symposium in Norway (7 June 2006).

41. Lipper, Ilan, and Jon Stone. "Nuclear Energy and Society." University of Michigan. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2009. <http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/ society/nuclear.htm>.

42.  Video of physics lecture – at Google Video; a natural nuclear reactor is mentioned at 42:40 mins into the video

43.  Meshik, Alex P. "The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor." Scientific American. November, 2005. Pg. 82.

44. "Oklo: Natural Nuclear Reactors". Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management. Retrieved June 28, 2006.

45. "Oklo's Natural Fission Reactors". American Nuclear Society. Retrieved June 28, 2006.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Nuclear power is produced by controlled (i.e., non-explosive) nuclear reactions. Commercial and utility plants currently use nuclear fission reactions to heat water to produce steam, which is then used to generate electricity.

 

Cattenom Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear power provides about 6% of the world's energy and 13–14% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for about 50% of nuclear generated electricity. Also, more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built.

Nuclear power is controversial and there is an ongoing debate about the use of nuclear energy. Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association and IAEA, contend that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions. Opponents, such as Greenpeace International and NIRS, believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment.

Some serious nuclear and radiation accidents have occurred. Nuclear power plant accidents include the Chernobyl disaster (1986), Fukushima I nuclear accidents (2011), and the Three Mile Island accident (1979). Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the K-19 reactor accident (1961), the K-27 reactor accident (1968), and the K-431 reactor accident (1985).International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, and the possible future use of nuclear fusion.

Contents

1 Use

1.1 Nuclear fusion

1.2 Use in space

2 History

2.1 Origins

2.2 Early years

2.3 Development

3 Nuclear reactor technology

3.1 Flexibility of nuclear power plants

4 Life cycle

4.1 Conventional fuel resources

4.1.1 Breeding

4.1.2 Fusion

4.2 Solid waste

4.2.1 High-level radioactive waste

4.2.2 Low-level radioactive waste

4.2.3 Comparing radioactive waste to industrial toxic waste

4.2.4 Waste disposal

4.3 Reprocessing

4.3.1 Depleted uranium

5 Economics

6 Accidents and safety

7 Nuclear proliferation

8 Environmental effects of nuclear power

9 Debate on nuclear power

10 Nuclear power organizations

10.1 Against

10.2 Supportive

11 Nuclear renaissance

12 Future of the industry

 

 

Use

 

Historical and projected world energy use by energy source, 1980-2030, Source: International Energy Outlook 2007, EIA.

Nuclear power installed capacity and generation, 1980 to 2007 (EIA).

The status of nuclear power globally

See also: Nuclear power by country and List of nuclear reactors

As of 2005, nuclear power provided 6.3% of the world's energy and 15% of the world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity. In 2007, the IAEA reported there were 439 nuclear power reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. As of December 2009, the world had 436 reactors. Since commercial nuclear energy began in the mid 1950s, 2008 was the first year that no new nuclear power plant was connected to the grid, although two were connected in 2009.

Annual generation of nuclear power has been on a slight downward trend since 2007, decreasing 1.8% in 2009 to 2558 TWh with nuclear power meeting 13–14% of the world's electricity demand. One factor in the nuclear power percentage decrease since 2007 has been the prolonged shutdown of large reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plant in Japan following the Niigata-Chuetsu-Oki earthquake.

The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—80% as of 2006. In the European Union as a whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs among European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia, and Ireland, have no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use.

In the US, while the coal and gas electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion by 2013, nuclear power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion.

Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion.[21] A few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A.

International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in district heating systems.

Nuclear fusion

Main articles: Nuclear fusion and Fusion power

Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under intense theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.

Use in space

Both fission and fusion appear promising for space propulsion applications, generating higher mission velocities with less reaction mass. This is due to the much higher energy density of nuclear reactions: some 7 orders of magnitude (10,000,000 times) more energetic than the chemical reactions which power the current generation of rockets.

Radioactive decay has been used on a relatively small scale (few kW), mostly to power space missions and experiments by using radioisotope thermoelectric generators such as those developed at Idaho National Laboratory.

History

Origins This section needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

 

See also: Nuclear fission#History

The pursuit of nuclear energy for electricity generation began soon after the discovery in the early 20th century that radioactive elements, such as radium, released immense amounts of energy, according to the principle of mass–energy equivalence. However, means of harnessing such energy was impractical, because intensely radioactive elements were, by their very nature, short-lived (high energy release is correlated with short half-lives). However, the dream of harnessing "atomic energy" was quite strong, even it was dismissed by such fathers of nuclear physics like Ernest Rutherford as "moonshine." This situation, however, changed in the late 1930s, with the discovery of nuclear fission.

In 1932, James Chadwick discovered the neutron, which was immediately recognized as a potential tool for nuclear experimentation because of its lack of an electric charge. Experimentation with bombardment of materials with neutrons led Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie to discover induced radioactivity in 1934, which allowed the creation of radium-like elements at much less the price of natural radium. Further work by Enrico Fermi in the 1930s focused on using slow neutrons to increase the effectiveness of induced radioactivity. Experiments bombarding uranium with neutrons led Fermi to believe he had created a new, transuranic element, which he dubbed hesperium.

Constructing the core of B-Reactor at Hanford Site during the Manhattan Project.

But in 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann, along with Austrian physicist Lise Meitner and Meitner's nephew, Otto Robert Frisch, conducted experiments with the products of neutron-bombarded uranium, as a means of further investigating Fermi's claims. They determined that the relatively tiny neutron split the nucleus of the massive uranium atoms into two roughly equal pieces, contradicting Fermi. This was an extremely surprising result: all other forms of nuclear decay involved only small changes to the mass of the nucleus, whereas this process—dubbed "fission" as a reference to biology—involved a complete rupture of the nucleus. Numerous scientists, including Leo Szilard, who was one of the first, recognized that if fission reactions released additional neutrons, a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction could result. Once this was experimentally confirmed and announced by Frédéric Joliot-Curie in 1939, scientists in many countries (including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and the Soviet Union) petitioned their governments for support of nuclear fission research, just on the cusp of World War II.

In the United States, where Fermi and Szilard had both emigrated, this led to the creation of the first man-made reactor, known as Chicago Pile-1, which achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. This work became part of the Manhattan Project, which made enriched uranium and built large reactors to breed plutonium for use in the first nuclear weapons, which were used on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at EBR-1 at what is now Idaho National Laboratory.

After World War II, the prospects of using "atomic energy" for good, rather than simply for war, were greatly advocated as a reason not to keep all nuclear research controlled by military organizations. However, most scientists agreed that civilian nuclear power would take at least a decade to master, and the fact that nuclear reactors also produced weapons-usable plutonium created a situation in which most national governments (such as those in the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the USSR) attempted to keep reactor research under strict government control and classification. In the United States, reactor research was conducted by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, primarily at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Hanford Site, and Argonne National Laboratory.

Work in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and USSR proceeded over the course of the late 1940s and early 1950s. Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR-I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW. Work was also strongly researched in the US on nuclear marine propulsion, with a test reactor being developed by 1953 (eventually, the USS Nautilus, the first nuclear-powered submarine, would launch in 1955). In 1953, US President Dwight Eisenhower gave his "Atoms for Peace" speech at the United Nations, emphasizing the need to develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the 1954 Amendments to the Atomic Energy Act which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and encouraged development by the private sector.

Early years

Calder Hall nuclear power station in the United Kingdom was the world's first nuclear power station to produce electricity in commercial quantities.

On June 27, 1954, the USSR's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a power grid, and produced around 5 megawatts of electric power.

Later in 1954, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (U.S. AEC, forerunner of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United States Department of Energy) spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter". Strauss was referring to hydrogen fusion—which was secretly being developed as part of Project Sherwood at the time—but Strauss's statement was interpreted as a promise of very cheap energy from nuclear fission. The U.S. AEC itself had issued far more conservative testimony regarding nuclear fission to the U.S. Congress only months before, projecting that "costs can be brought down... [to]... about the same as the cost of electricity from conventional sources..." Significant disappointment would develop later on, when the new nuclear plants did not provide energy "too cheap to meter."

In 1955 the United Nations' "First Geneva Conference", then the world's largest gathering of scientists and engineers, met to explore the technology. In 1957 EURATOM was launched alongside the European Economic Community (the latter is now the European Union). The same year also saw the launch of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

The Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Shippingport, Pennsylvania was the first commercial reactor in the USA and was opened in 1957.

The world's first commercial nuclear power station, Calder Hall in Sellafield, England was opened in 1956 with an initial capacity of 50 MW (later 200 MW).[28][34] The first commercial nuclear generator to become operational in the United States was the Shippingport Reactor (Pennsylvania, December 1957).

One of the first organizations to develop nuclear power was the U.S. Navy, for the purpose of propelling submarines and aircraft carriers. The first nuclear-powered submarine, USS Nautilus (SSN-571), was put to sea in December 1954.[35] Two U.S. nuclear submarines, USS Scorpion and USS Thresher, have been lost at sea. Several serious nuclear and radiation accidents have involved nuclear submarine mishaps. The Soviet submarine K-19 reactor accident in 1961 resulted in 8 deaths and more than 30 other people were over-exposed to radiation. The Soviet submarine K-27 reactor accident in 1968 resulted in 9 fatalities and 83 other injuries.

The United States Army also had a nuclear power program, beginning in 1954. The SM-1 Nuclear Power Plant, at Ft. Belvoir, Virginia, was the first power reactor in the US to supply electrical energy to a commercial grid (VEPCO), in April 1957, before Shippingport. The SL-1 was a United States Army experimental nuclear power reactor which underwent a steam explosion and meltdown in 1961, killing its three operators.

Development

History of the use of nuclear power (top) and the number of active nuclear power plants.

Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 gigawatt (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and 300 GW in the late 1980s. Since the late 1980s worldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s) — in 2005, around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled. A total of 63 nuclear units were canceled in the USA between 1975 and 1980.

 

During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation) and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s (U.S.) and 1990s (Europe), flat load growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new baseload capacity unattractive.

The 1973 oil crisis had a significant effect on countries, such as France and Japan, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation (39% and 73% respectively) to invest in nuclear power.[39][40] Today, nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricity in those countries, respectively.

Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s, and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns. These concerns related to nuclear accidents, nuclear proliferation, high cost of nuclear power plants, nuclear terrorism and radioactive waste disposal. In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America. By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a wider appeal and influence, and nuclear power became an issue of major public protest. Although it lacked a single co-ordinating organization, and did not have uniform goals, the movement's efforts gained a great deal of attention. In some countries, the nuclear power conflict "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies". In France, between 1975 and 1977, some 175,000 people protested against nuclear power in ten demonstrations.[49] In West Germany, between February 1975 and April 1979, some 280,000 people were involved in seven demonstrations at nuclear sites. Several site occupations were also attempted. In the aftermath of the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, some 120,000 people attended a demonstration against nuclear power in Bonn. In May 1979, an estimated 70,000 people, including then governor of California Jerry Brown, attended a march and rally against nuclear power in Washington, D.C. Anti-nuclear power groups emerged in every country that has had a nuclear power programme. Some of these anti-nuclear power organisations are reported to have developed considerable expertise on nuclear power and energy issues.